Get Permission Sinha, Sharma, Shrivastava, and Bankwar: Prevalence of mental illness among women in an urban slum area of Jaipur: A cross- sectional study


Introduction

Mental health is described as emotional, psychological and social well being. It influences how we feel, think and act. It helps in determining how one handles stress, makes choices and relate to others. A mental disorder is characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior.1 It is usually associated with distress or impairment in important areas of functioning. There are many different types of mental disorders.  Mental disorders may also be referred to as mental health conditions. The latter is a broader term covering mental disorders, psychosocial disabilities and (other) mental states associated with significant distress, impairment in functioning, or risk of self-harm.2 In 2019, 1 in every 8 people, or 970 million people around the world were living with a mental disorder, where anxiety (301 million) and depressive disorders (280 million) were most common.3 In 2020, the number of people living with anxiety and depressive disorders rose significantly because of the COVID-19 pandemic. 4 Initial estimates show a 26% and 28% increase respectively for anxiety and major depressive disorders in just one year. When it comes to countries, India is the most depressed country in the world, according to the World Health Organization, followed by China and the USA. Depression is the most common mental disorder in India with 45.7 million people suffering from it.  A higher prevalence of depressive disorders was seen in females (3.9 per cent) than males (2.7 per cent). National Mental Health Survey 2016 found that close to 14% of India’s population required active mental health interventions. Every year, about 2,00,000 Indians take their lives. 5 The statistics are even higher if one starts to include the number of attempted suicide.

Depression being a chronic debilitating condition, can impact a person’s living in all spheres—family, societal, and work; thus requiring early identification and treatment. Stress has increasingly become a common part of the urban lifestyle and has been found to be persistently prevalent among young adults. 6 Long term exposure to stress can have adverse effects on the musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular system and gastrointestinal system among other health issues, whereas short term stress can act as a trigger for fatal health events. In fact, chronic stress may cause depression and anxiety among individuals. Gender has been described as a critical determinant of mental health and mental illness. Depression is not only the most common women's mental health problem, but may be more persistent in women than men. 7 Women mental health can be conceptualized as having a wide range of related areas, including reproductive health, psychopharmacology, psychosocial determinants of mental health, and legal issues. Therefore, assessment of these factors is essential for preventive action. With this background, a community-based study was conducted with the objective to assess the burden of depression, anxiety and stress among women residing in urban slums of Jaipur and also to assess the factors affecting them.

Material and Methods

Study design and source of population

A community based cross-sectional study was conducted in an urban field practice area of the Department of Community Medicine, JNU Institute of Medical Sciences, Jaipur; Rajasthan among women aged 18-59 years. The study was carried out over a period of 2 months from March 2023 to April 2023. The Sample size was calculated as 503 using the formula 4pq/l2 and finite sample correction, taking the prevalence of depression 14.9% among women population according to Srinivasan M et al. study with 95% confidence interval, 3% allowable error and 10% non response rate. 8

Data Collection Procedures and Validity

All the 8 outreach areas which come under urban field practice area were included in the study. There are total 1042 households in the urban field practice area with a population of approximately 2760 eligible participants. Based on population proportionate to size method, the number of eligible participants in each area was visited. Data was collected by house ‑ to ‑ house survey in each area starting from the first house randomly selected till the required sample size for each area was attained in the community. Only 1 participant from each household was interviewed after taking the informed consent. If the house was locked, next house was included in the study. Participants were interviewed using a predesigned, pretested semi-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of socio-demographic details and other factors, such as the presence of debts, history of domestic violence, and addictions (alcohol/tobacco) among family members and also obstetric history. We used Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS)-21 questionnaire to capture the primary outcomes—depression, anxiety, and stress. DASS-21 is a screening tool to measure depression, anxiety, and stress in the reference period of “past 1 week.” Questions in each of these three domains are based on the symptoms that would be reported by patients with above specified illnesses. The responses were captured in a four point Likert’s scale and the scores range between 0 and 42. Using the cut-offs for DASS tool, participants were classified into with/without the outcome under study. We used the Hindi version of DASS-21, which was translated to provide a better understanding of the participants. English version of DASS-21 was initially translated into Hindi version by a subject expert, which was then back-translated into English by another subject expert.

Data processing and analysis

Data was entered into Microsoft Excel and exported to Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software version 22 for analysis. The categorical data was expressed as percentage/proportions and difference in proportions was compared using chi-square test. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results were interpreted in tables and figures.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Ethical approval was obtained from IEC of JNU Institute of Medical Sciences, Jaipur; Rajasthan. A verbal consent was obtained from the participants. All the respondents were assured that the information collected would be confidential.

Table 1

Socio-demographic characteristics of women from urban slum. (N = 505)

Characteristics

Number

Percentage

Age

15-25 years

143

28.32

26-35 years

129

25.54

36-45 years

92

18.22

46-55 years

69

13.66

56-59 years

72

14.26

Education

Graduate & above

40

7.92

Intermediate

59

11.68

High school

93

18.42

Middle school

97

19.21

Primary school

61

12.08

Illiterate

155

30.69

Religion

Hindu

238

47.13

Muslim

267

52.87

Occupation

Working

121

23.96

homemaker

380

75.25

Student

04

0.79

Type of family

Nuclear

228

45.15

Joint

163

32.28

Three generation

114

22.57

Socio economic status

Class I

42

8.32

Class 1I

99

19.60

Class III

156

30.89

Class IV

138

27.33

Class V

70

13.86

Marital status

Married

412

81.58

Unmarried

74

14.65

Separated

03

0.59

Widowed

16

3.17

Chronic disease

Yes

131

25.94

No

374

74.06

Addiction of harmful substance in family

Alcohol

51

10.10

Tobacco

126

24.95

Both

22

4.36

No addiction

306

60.59

Relation to family addicted to harmful substance

Husband

136

26.93

In-laws

65

12.87

Siblings

01

0.20

Children

04

0.79

Parents

07

1.39

Other family members (cousins)

47

9.31

Table 2

Housing condition & environment of study participants, N=505.

Characteristics

Number

Percentage

Tenure of house

Own

419

82.97

Rented

86

17.03

Overcrowding

Absent

258

51.09

Present

247

48.92

Financial debts in family

No

426

84.36

Yes

79

15.64

Husband working away

No

375

74.26

Yes

38

7.52

NA

92

18.22

Family history of psychiatric illness

No

481

95.25

Yes (24)

Husband

01

4.17

Children

06

25

Parents

03

12.5

In-laws

11

45.83

Sibling

03

12.5

Ill treatment by in-laws

No

402

79.60

Yes

16

3.17

NA

87

17.23

Ill treatment by husband

No

359

71.09

Yes

27

5.35

NA

119

23.56

Domestic violence/abuse in family

No

474

93.86

Yes (30)

Husband

18

60

In-laws

12

40

Loss of near one in the past one year

No

443

87.72

Yes (62)

Husband

07

11.29

In-laws

18

29.03

Child

07

11.29

Parent

18

29.03

Grand parents

05

8.07

Sibling

03

4.84

Friend

04

6.45

Table 3

Behavioral health factors and obstetric history of women participants. N=505

Characteristics

Number

Percentage

Current use of tobacco

No

433

85.74

Yes

72

14.26

Physical exercise

No

326

64.55

Yes

179

35.45

Poor sleep

No

286

56.63

Yes

219

43.37

Generalized pain

No

339

67.13

Yes

166

32.87

Age of marriage

<18 years

233

46.14

18 years & above

198

39.21

NA

74

14.65

Family completed

No

96

19.01

Yes

335

66.37

NA

74

14.65

Recent history of abortion/ still birth

No

266

52.67

Yes

22

4.36

NA

217

42.97

Currently pregnant

No

254

50.30

Yes (34)

Wanted

27

79.41

Unwanted

07

20.59

NA

217

42.97

Pressure of male child

No

250

49.50

Yes

38

7.52

NA

217

42.97

Table 4

Association of mental health illness with socio-demographic factors, N=505.

Characteristics

Anxiety

Depression

Stress

Yes N, %

No N, %

Total

Chi square & p value

Yes N,%

No N, %

Total

Chi square & p value

Yes N, %

No N, %

Total

Chi square & p value

Age (years)

15-25

50 34.96%

93 65.03%

143

6.26, 0.18

29 20.28%

114 79.72%

143

2.313 & 0.678

16 11.19%

127 88.81 %

143

2.031 & 0.730

26-35

46 35.66%

83 64.34%

129

27 21.26%

102 80.31%

129

10 7.87%

119 93.70%

129

36-45

31 30.70 %

61 66.30%

92

17 18.48%

75 81.52%

92

9 9.78%

83 90.22%

92

46-55

33 40.83%

36 52.17%

69

9 13.04%

60 86.96%

69

4 5.80%

65 94.20%

69

56-59

33 45.83%

39 54.17%

72

12 16.67%

60 83.33%

72

7 9.72%

65 90.28%

72

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Education

Graduate & above

13 32.50%

27 67.50%

40

9.609 & 0.087

7 17.5%

33 82.5%

40

2.891 & 0.718

6 15.0%

34 85.0%

40

5.740 & 0.332

Intermediate

15 25.42%

44 74.58%

59

13 22.03%

46 77.97%

59

9 15.25%

50 84.75%

59

High school

32 34.41%

61 65.60%

93

14 15.05%

79 84.95%

93

6 6.45%

87 93.55%

93

Middle school

36 37.11%

61 62.89%

97

16 17.20%

81 82.8%

97

7 7.22%

90 92.78%

97

Primary school

29 30.43%

32 69.57%

61

10 16.39%

51 83.61%

61

5 8.20%

56 91.8%

61

Illiterate

68 43.87%

87 56.13%

155

34 21.94%

121 78.06%

155

13 8.39%

142 91.61%

155

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Religion

Hindu

88 36.98%

150 63.02%

238

0.295 & 0.587

39 16.39%

199 83.61%

238

1.474 & 0.225

17 7.14%

221 92.86%

238

2.102 & 0.147

Muslim

105 39.33%

162 60.67%

267

55 20.6%

212 79.4%

267

29 10.86%

238 89.14%

267

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Occupation

Working

54 44.63%

67 55.37%

121

5.012 & 0.082

33 27.27%

88 72.73%

121

8.594 & 0.014

15 12.40%

106 87.60%

121

2.396 & 0.302

homemaker

139 36.58%

241 63.42%

380

61 16.05%

319 83.95%

380

31 8.16%

349 91.84%

380

Student

0 0

4 100%

4

0 0

4 100%

4

0 0

4 100%

4

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

455

505

Type of family

Nuclear

89 39.04%

139 60.96%

228

6.684 & 0.035

45 19.74%

183 80.26%

228

0.414 & 0.813

25 10.97%

203 89.03%

228

3.759 & 0.153

Joint

51 31.29%

112 68.71%

163

28 17.18%

135 82.82%

163

9 05.52%

154 94.48%

163

Three generation

53 46.49%

61 53.52%

114

21 18.42%

93 81.58%

114

12 10.53%

102 89.47%

114

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Socio economic status

Class I

12 28.57%

30 71.43%

42

4.524 & 0.340

6 14.29%

36 85.71%

42

2.471 & 0.650

4 9.52%

38 90.48%

42

3.051 & 0.543

Class 1I

33 33.33%

66 66.67%

99

19 19.19%

80 80.81%

99

10 10.10%

89 89.9%

99

Class III

62 39.74%

94 60.26%

156

34 21.80%

122 78.20%

156

18 11.54%

138 88.46%

156

Class IV

54 39.13%

84 60.87%

138

25 18.12%

113 81.88%

138

8 5.80%

130 94.20%

138

Class V

32 45.71%

38 54.29%

70

10 14.29%

60 85.71%

70

6 8.57%

64 91.43%

70

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Table 5

Association of mental health illness with housing, environmental factors and behavioral health risk factors. N=505

Characteristics

Anxiety

Depression

Stress

Yes N,%

No N,%

Total

Chi square & p value

Yes N,%

No N,%

Total

Chi square & p value

Yes N,%

No N,%

Total

Chi square & p value

Tenure of house

Own

153 36.5%

266 63.5%

419

3.020 & 0.082

66 15.8%

353 84.2%

419

13.304 & 0.000

32 7.6 %

387 92.4%

419

6.436 & 0.011

Rented

40 46.5%

46 53.5%

86

28 32.6%

58 67.4%

86

14 16.3%

72 83.7%

86

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Over crowding

Present

96 38.9%

151 61.1%

247

0.086 & 0.769

40 16.2%

207 83.8%

247

1.868 & 0.172

14 5.7 %

233 94.3%

247

6.914 & 0.009

Absent

97 37.6%

161 62.4%

258

54 20.9 %

204 79.1 %

258

32 12.4%

226 87.6%

258

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Having debts in family

Yes

42 53.2%

37 46.8%

79

8.861 & 0.003

33 41.8 %

46 58.2%

79

33.154 & 0.000

20 25.3%

59 74.7%

79

29.714& 0.000

No

151 35.4%

275 64.6%

426

61 14.3%

365 85.7%

426

26 6.1 %

400 93.9%

426

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Husband working away from

Yes

17 44.7%

21 55.3%

38

0.399 & 0.527

11 28.9%

27 71.1%

38

4.086 & 0.130

8 21.1%

30 78.9%

38

8.144 & 0.017

No

148 39.5%

227 60.5%

375

63 16.8%

312 83.2%

375

28 7.5 %

347 92.5%

375

NA

28 30.4%

64 69.6%

92

20 21.7%

72 78.3%

92

10 10.9%

82 89.1%

92

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Family history of psychiatric illness

Yes

17 70.8%

7 29.2%

24

11.352 & 0.001

13 54.2%

11 45.8%

24

21.024 & 0.000

8 33.3%

16 66.7%

24

17.860 & 0.000

No

176 36.6%

305 63.4%

481

81 16.8%

400 83.2%

481

38 7.9 %

443 92.1 %

481

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Ill treatment by in-laws

Yes

11 68.8%

5 31.3%

16

3.292 & 0.193

9 56.3%

7 43.8%

16

15.566 & 0.000

6 37.5%

10 63.5%

16

16.089 & 0.000

No

159 39.6%

243 60.4%

402

71 17.7%

331 83.3%

402

33 8.2 %

369 91.8%

402

NA

23 26.4%

64 73.6%

87

14 16.1%

73 83.9%

87

7 8.0 %

80 92.0 %

87

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Ill treatment by husband

Yes

23 85.2%

4 14.8%

27

0.399 & 0.527

16 59.3%

11 40.7%

27

34.307 & 0.000

8 29.6%

19 70.4%

27

18.656 & 0.000

No

132 36.8%

227 63.2%

359

52 14.5%

307 85.5%

359

23 6.4 %

336 93.6%

359

NA

38 31.9%

81 68.1%

119

26 21.8%

93 78.2%

119

15 12.6%

104 87.4 %

119

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Domestic abuse/ violence in family

Yes

23 76.7%

7 23.3%

30

19.969 & 0.000

18 60.0%

12 40.0%

30

36.061 & 0.000

9 30.0%

21 70.0%

30

16.813 & 0.000

No

170 35.8%

305 64.2%

475

76 16.0%

399 84.0%

475

37 7.8 %

438 92.2%

475

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Loss of near one in the past one year

Yes

29 46.8%

33 53.2%

62

2.191 & 0.139

20 32.3%

42 67.7%

62

8.658 & 0.003

11 17.7%

51 82.3%

62

6.362 & 0.012

No

164 37.0%

279 63.0%

443

74 16.7%

369 83.3%

443

35 7.9 %

408 92.1%

443

Total

193

312

505

94

411

505

46

459

505

Figure 1

Prevalence of anxiety, stress and depression amongwomen in slum area, N=505

https://typeset-prod-media-server.s3.amazonaws.com/article_uploads/77f733c4-32a3-48cb-a8e2-a0a85f0b7db9/image/7ebc1e0b-4fb3-406c-9a58-25394f20c151-uimage.png

Inclusion criteria

  1. Women between 18-59 years of age residing in the area.

  2. Willing to participate in the study.

Exclusion criteria

  1. Who did not consent to participate in the study

  2. Women suffering from any previously diagnosed mental illness.

Results

In our study maximum participants were in the age group of 15-25 years (28.32%). 30.69% were illiterate and 52.87% were Muslims. Majority lived in nuclear family (45.15%) and belonged to class III (30.89%) socio-economic status according to modified B.G Prasad classification 2022. 75.25% women were home-makers and maximum were married (81.58%). Prevalence of any type of chronic disease among women was 25.94%. 39.41% of their family members were addicted to harmful substances. The maximum consumption was of tobacco. [Table 1]. Majority of them (82.97%) were residing in their own houses. Overcrowding was seen in 48.92% of the participant’s houses. 15.64% had financial debt in their family. 7.52% of their husband’s were working in different cities away from hometown. History of psychiatric illness in family was seen in 4.75% of them. 3.17% & 5.35% of them were ill treated by their in-laws and husband respectively. 5.94% of them were subjected to domestic violence and abuse by their family members. [Table 2]. Currently 14.26% of the women were addicted to any form of tobacco. 43.33% had complains of poor sleep and 32.87% had generalized pain in body. Most of them (46.14%) were married before the age of 18 years. 4.35% of the participants had suffered from pregnancy loss recently and 6.73% were currently pregnant but out of these pregnant women 20.59% of the pregnancy was unwanted and7.52% revealed that there was a pressure for male child from the in-laws. [Table 3]. In our study, the overall, the prevalence of anxiety, stress and depression was 38.22%, 9.11%, and 18.61%, respectively, and which ranged from mild to extremely severe. [Figure 1] There were meaningful correlations between probable factors like physical inactivity, poor sleep and generalized pain and DASS scores obtained by the participants. [Table 4] There was a significant association with the various housing, environmental and behavioral risk factors with the presence of mental health illness. [Table 5]

Discussion

In the present study, the overall, the prevalence of anxiety, stress and depression was 38.22%, 9.11%, and 18.61% respectively. A study conducted by Chauhan S et al., study, 5.1%, 8.7%, and 7.3% of participants were experiencing severe or extremely severe depression, anxiety, and stress levels, respectively. In our study, 0.99%, 6.93% and 6.79% were having severe depression, anxiety and stress DASS scores. In Pawar N et al., study in North India mental illness was prevalent slightly higher in the age group of 46 & 60 years whereas in our study it was more in the 15-45 years age group.9 In our study, the prevalence of anxiety, depression and stress among women was higher compared to Srinivasan M et al., study in South India where the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress was 15%, 10.6%, and 5% respectively.8 In a study by Verma S et al., the prevalence of depression was 25% and the reason for high prevalence could be because of COVID 19 pandemic and prolonged lockdown. 10 A study done in Gujarat found that the prevalence of stress was alarmingly high (26%) when compared with our finding.11 In this study, we found that there was a concomitant existence of depression, anxiety and stress.

The present study found that very few socio demographic factors were associated to mental illness among women in our urban field practice area. Mental illness was common in three generation and nuclear family compared to joint family which was similar to Pawar N et al., study.9 Having debts in family was statistically associated with anxiety. Depression was strongly associated with ill treatment by husband, by in laws and domestic abuse/violence in family with p-value 0.000. A systematic review of the epidemiological literature on common mental disorders and poverty in low and middle-income countries found that of the 115 studies reviewed, over 70% reported positive associations between a variety of poverty measures and common mental disorders. 12 A review of population surveys in European countries found that higher frequencies of common mental disorders (depression and anxiety) are associated with low educational attainment, material disadvantage and unemployment.13 However, other studies have shown a vast array of factors different from our study contributing to this mental illness. These differences might be due to the different studies are being set in different cultures and socio demographic status.

Conclusion

The study showed that the prevalence of anxiety was higher compared to other DAS symptoms. The DASS symptoms were poorly associated to demographic characteristics of the study participants although amongst the separated and widowed females there was significant statistical association. These women suffer from higher mental health problems due to stigmatization and lack of support from the family members and community. There was also a significant association with the behavioral health risk factors like lack of physical exercise, poor sleep. The study findings clearly indicate the importance of early detection as well as prevention of mental health problem among the female population. The establishment and strengthening of health care system locally can help in overcoming the alarming rise in mental health problem in the community.

Strength

The interview was conducted by trained and briefed MBBS interns who provided better clarifications for the doubts that came up during the interview.

Weakness

As the study was conducted in urban slum area of Jaipur therefore the results cannot be generalized in the other parts of the city and rural areas.

Source of Funding

None.

Conflict of Interest

None.

References

1 

A Dhyani A Gaidhane SG Choudhari Strengthening Response Toward Promoting Mental Health in India: A Narrative ReviewCureus20221410e3043510.7759/cureus.30435

2 

S Chauhan BT Aeri Depression, anxiety, and stress among Indian urban affluent adults.Indian J Soc Psychiatry2020361603

3 

World Health Organization-Depression and other Common Mental Disorders: Global Health EstimatesGeneva, Switzerland20206152

4 

"Depression: let’s talk" says WHO, as depression tops list of causes of ill health2017132

5 

RS Murthy National Mental Health Survey of India 2015-2016Indian J Psychiatry2017591216

6 

R Shidhaye S Gangale V Patel Prevalence and treatment coverage for depression: a population-based survey in VidarbhaIndia Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol20165179931003

7 

I Sharma A Pathak Women mental health in IndiaIndian J Psychiatry20155722015

8 

M Shrinivasan MM Reddy S Sarkar V Menon Depression, anxiety, and stress among rural South Indian women-prevalence and correlates: A community-based studyNeurosci Rural Pract20201117883

9 

N Pawar N Kumar A Vikram S Sembiah G Rajawat Depression and its socio demographic correlates among urban slum dwellers of North India: A cross sectional studyJ Family Med Prim Care2022116236976

10 

S Verma A Mishra Depression, anxiety, and stress and socio-demographic correlates among general Indian public during COVID-19Int J Soc Psychiatry202066875662

11 

PA Patel PP Patel AV Khadilkar SA Chiplonkar AD Patel Impact of occupation on stress and anxiety among Indian womenWomen Health2017573392401

12 

R Jenkins D Bhugra P Bebbington T Brugha M Farrell J Coid Debt, income and mental disorder in the general populationPsychol Med20083810148593

13 

T Fryers D Melzer R Jenkins T Brugha The distribution of the common mental disorders: Social inequalities in EuropeJ Pub Mental Health2005114112



jats-html.xsl


This is an Open Access (OA) journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.

  • Article highlights
  • Article tables
  • Article images

Article History

Received : 07-07-2023

Accepted : 14-08-2023


View Article

PDF File   Full Text Article


Copyright permission

Get article permission for commercial use

Downlaod

PDF File   XML File   ePub File


Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

Article DOI

https://doi.org/10.18231/j.jpmhh.2023.016


Article Metrics






Article Access statistics

Viewed: 939

PDF Downloaded: 1181